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 * Team Al-Khwarizmi**
 * Wiki 2: The Science and Technology of Cars**
 * The Life Cycle of a Product**

 //“The fourth angel poured out his bowl on the sun. It was given the power to burn people with fire. People were burned by the scorching heat and blasphemed the name of God who had power over these plagues…” ---Revelations 16: 8-9//
 * I. ****Introduction**

Environmental problems like pollution and global warming are upon us. On there effects we are witnesses to --- from the bush fires of Australia, the massive flooding in Southeast Asia, the snow blizzards in North America to the imminent dwindling crude/fossil fuel supply in the market. These 21st century plagues come to haunt us because of man’s irresponsible use of finite resources—resulting to the denudation of our forests and dwindling of our planet’s natural resources. If we don’t act fast and make a conscious effort to change on how we live for the better, it will set the stage that eventually, may lead not only in endangering the animal and plant life but the obliteration of life itself on our only planet altogether.

Today, many ways are being done to find solutions to these environmental problems. Groups, big and small as well as individuals are doing their own share to contribute to the awareness and to the possible solutions or actions that should be done to save and conserve the environment. The most popular is the campaign to Reduce, Re-use and Recycle. Adjunct to this idea is the concept of the Life Cycle of products.

The Life-Cycle of a Product concept is a "cradle to grave" approach. It is concept that leads us to thinking about products, the processes it undergoes during its manufacture and as well as services and the process it undergoes after sales. It recognizes that all life-cycle of products have stages like: extracting and processing of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse, and recycling and waste management; and that these stages not only have economic impacts but environmental impacts as well. This Life Cycle of a product concept is not exclusive to business manufacturers alone but can also be applied by government and non-governmental organizations to their decision-making processes related to environment, product policy, design and improvement. The Life Cycle concept can also be employed as a competent scientific tool for gathering data by means of weighing and ranking the environmental burdens of products, processes and services.

A **car** is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own motor and transports people from different places. It is a complex machine that has undergone over a century of evolution and is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern vehicle. From the first Ford automobile, to the space age cars that can virtually drive itself, to the earth-friendly or “Green” cars that uses bio-fuel or electricity to run and are made out from renewable resources --- We can truly say, that the car has come a long way since its invention and the advancement in science and technology are greatly responsible for its development. Let us take a look at the Life Cycle of a car and see the different stages and processes that take place and be witness to the science and technology that surround each process.


 * II. ****The Six Stages of the Life Cycle of a Car**

A. Stage 1: Raw material Extraction

Acquiring and extraction of raw materials is the first stage of the life cycle of a car. Cars are usually made from iron, steel, aluminum and other metals as well as synthetic fibers, foams, paints, coatings, glass and rubber. Chemicals and minerals are also used in the acquiring and extraction of raw materials but are not found in the final product––toluene and methyl ethyl ketone, phosphates, sulfides and even fuels for electricity and production (Environmental Defense, 1999).

A car uses raw materials that are extracted from the Earth and most of them are nonrenewable (Environmental Defense, 1999). Cars Wastes and processes involved in this stage pose a great threat to our environment. Mining of different minerals affects the community near the mining site. Transportation of these minerals requires petroleum to bring them to the next stage and might and will cause effects to the environment too (Merriam 1994).

Metal ores are obtained by surface, or open pit, mining. These metal ores are then refined into metals. In 1996, a 1.7-billion tons of toxic waste material were recorded, which is connected to the US surface mining for metal ores. Coal is also extracted from the earth by “underground and open pit mining” and is ready for use after mining. On the other hand, crude oil and natural gas are obtained from the earth through productions wells, which are deep holes that are dug hundred and thousands of feet below the surface. The extracted oil and gas are now transported via network of pipelines to oil refineries (Environmental Defense, 1999).

B. Stage 2: Material Production Steel, glass, metals, aluminum and rubber are some of the most commonly used materials used to make the materials needed for car production. These materials are either extracted from nature or come from renewable resources like recycled components from old cars/vehicles. These materials are molded, welded and fitted or put together by car design engineers to make car parts like the engine, the frame, the wheel and axle etc.


 * Key Materials that can be used for car production**

1. GRP - Glass Reinforced Polymer or most commonly known as Glass Fiber
GRP is a low volume material, meaning it is not advisable for mass production and only practical for low volume production. It is used most commonly in hand built sports cars, kit cars and bus and train fascias (dashboard). It is made using a manual layering technique; wherein glass fibers are padded into layers of polymer in a mould. The polymer sets with an aerobic reaction, which means the mould is invariably tied up for a longer period of time than mass production would allow. The end result is a strong form that can be painted using cellulose paints in a traditional way.

It is an object of the present invention to provide a 4-methyl-1-pentene polymer compostition, which has high standards of flexible, tensile and impact strength, and heat, and water resistance.

2. Mild Steel
Mild steel is one of the most common materials in use in the car industry. Steel still offers great value in mass production and simpler production processes than its rivals like aluminum. Steel, in terms of corrosion, is holding more ground than ever with improved galvanizing and painting techniques. It is cheap to obtain by comparison to Aluminum and is readily available through recycling. Mild steel can be prepared and processed using traditional tooling. It responds well to standard joining processes such as spot and seam welding as well as bolting to form specific car parts.

mild steel can be common referred to carbon steel. Carbon steel have no more than 2% carbon and no other appreciable alloying element. Carbon steels are stiff and strong, and also performs ferromagnetism. This steel is very common in motors and electrical appliances.

Advantages: · Cheap · Wide Variety available with different properties · Extreme stiffness · Magnetic · Most carbon steels are easy machine and weld Disadvantages: · Poor corrosion resistance (rusts)

3. Aluminum
Aluminum is hailed by leading car manufacturers like Audi as a material suitable for all elements of a vehicle's body. It is lightweight and does not corrode like steel. It is usually used for space-frame construction. A downside is its slightly more complex welding process making it more expensive than steel to work with. It is often bonded with epoxy creating strong bonds that provide good force distribution but is very difficult to repair.

4. Polypropylene
Polypropylene, or PP, is commonly used in bumper construction and is a popular proposed alternative to metal bodywork. This material, compared to metal has a great elastic and plastic deformation characteristic that is ideal for use in impact. And where pedestrian impact is a consideration, A combination of hard skin and softer foam PP can also be good alternative to traditional bonnets (hoods). On its “Green-side”, Polypropylene can be heated and melted for recycling, making it more attractive to manufacturers (and consumers). One down-side of this material is its rate of expansion and contraction in response to heat making the panels expand more than metals during the summertime.

C. Stage 3: Major Parts The Power Train: Engine, Transmission, Drive Shafts, Differentials, Final Drive ** The crankshaft then translates the ** reciprocati **on linear piston motion into rotation**,** this will make the wheel rotate and as a result makes the car run or move from point a to point b. Because of the physics of the internal combustion engine, cars will need a **transmission**, which is the second part of the power train. An engine has a maximum rpm value called //redline//. If the engine goes over this value, it will explode given that engines have narrow rpm ranges where horsepower and torque are at their maximum. Engines usually run over a range of 600 to about 6000 revolutions, though this varies from design to design. The car's wheels, on the other hand, rotate between 0 rpm and around 2500 rpm. The transmission allows the big ratio between the engine and the drive wheels to change as the car slows down or speed up. This is why you change gears so that the engine can stay less than the red line and near the rpm band of its best performance. The transmission is joined to the engine through the //clutch//. The input shaft of the transmission as a result returns at the same rpm of the engine. The **driveshaft**, on the other hand, is a mechanical tool used for transmitting power from the engine to the final drive, which are usually the wheels. The drive shafts are carriers of torque that is the main reason why they need to be strong. The **differential** is a mechanism consisting of gears specially designed to drive a pair of wheels with equal force, while permitting them to rotate at different speeds. Without the differential, there will be a strain on the entire drive train, which will result on difficult handling of the automobile; the strain could also damage the tires. The **final drive**, which is the set of drive wheels, is the main recipients of the energy that is produce by the engine. In a 4-wheel automobile, the final drive is usually the pair of wheels in the rear.

The brake is a device that slows down or stops a moving vehicle. The usual brakes that are in use in a modern automobile are the **disk brakes** and the **drum brakes**. The disk brakes are usually in the front wheels while the drum brakes are usually in the rear wheels. Each brake is connected by a system of ** tubes and hoses ** that also connects them to the ** master cylinder, this set up is the basic brake system. ** Other features like **parking brakes** **,** **power brake**  **booster** and the **anti-lock** system may be interconnected to the system. Automobile Wheels & Tires ** A **wheel** is a tool with circular shape that, together with axle, allows friction in motion when rolling. A **tyre** or **tire** is a device, usually made of synthetic rubber, which covers the circumference of a wheel**.** Tires dampen the oscillation caused by irregularities on road surfaces; it also provides more friction bond between the vehicle and road. Steering System ** The steering system composing of the **steering wheel**, **track rod**, **tie rods**, and the **steering arms**, could vary from model to model but the basic devise is to move the track rod left-to-right across the car. The system will enable a driver to direct the vehicle towards the direction it wanted it to go. Frame (Vehicle) ** A frame is the key structure of an automobile **chassis**. All other components are attached to it.
 * Brake System **

Essentially, the power train: engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, final drive together with the brake system, the wheels & tires, the steering system, and the frame are the major parts of an automobile; if one of these parts will be taken out of an automobile, it will never be able to travel from point A to point B.

D. Stage 4: Assembly

An automobile is constructed from the ground up and out. The frame forms the base on which the body rests. The frame is placed on the assembly line and clamped to the conveyor to avoid changes while it moves down to the line. Starting here, the automobile frame moves to component assembly area where complete front and back suspensions, gas tanks, rear axles and drive shafts, gear boxes, steering box components, wheel drums, and barking systems are installed consecutively. Then an off-line operation at this stage, mates the vehicles engine with its transmission. (Employees use robotic arms to install those heavy components inside the engine compartment of the frame). After the engine and transmission are installed, workers attaches the radiator and another bolts it into place.
 * Framework**

Floor pan is the largest body part on which a large number of panels and braces will then be either welded or bolted. And as it moves down the assembly line, the shell of the vehicle is built by clamping its fixtures. the left and right quarter panels are robotically detached from pre-staged shipping containers and placed them into the floor pan, where they are stabilized with positioning fixtures and welded. The front and back door pillars, roof and body side panels are assembled in the same style. As the body moves from isolated weld area, succeeding body gears including fully assemble doors, deck lids, fenders, trunk lid, hood panel, and bumper reinforcements are installed. Once the body shell/case is complete, it is now attached to an overhead conveyor for the painting process.
 * Body-in-White Assembly (BIW)**

The body of a car must pass through a thorough inspection process. The case/shell of the car passes through a brightly light white room where it is fully wipe down by visual inspectors to check if there were any defects in the metal part of the shell. Then as the case/shell of the car exiys at the cleaning station, it goes through a drying booth and then through an //electro-coating// which covers every corner and cleft in the body of the shell. Electro-coating is a method which lowers the vehicle body into an electrostatic dip tank, preferably at an angle, then rocking the forward and rearward ends of the vehicle upwardly and downwardly about the lateral axis generally perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, then rising the body of the vehicle out of the dip tank preferably at an angle relative to horizontal. This coat acts as a substrate surface to which the top coat of colored paint adheres. After the electro-coating process, the case/shell of the car was going to be dried again in a booth. And then it was going to be covered with a base coat color paint and a clear top coat. Then the conveyor transfers the body into baking ovens where the paint is cured at a temperatures beyond 275 degrees Fahrenheit. The vehicle is driven off the assembly line towards a quality checkpoint after the components was already installed. After the shell leaves the paint area, it is now ready for interior assembly.
 * Painting**

Next, the painted case/shell of a car goes to the interior assembly area where workers assemble all theinstrumentation and wiring systems, seats, dash panels, interioir lights, doors and trim panels, radios and speakers, headliners, navigation column and wheel, vinyl tops, body weather-strips, brake and gas pedals, front and rear bumper fascias, carpeting of the unit, and putting glasses except the windshield. Afterwards, the machines or robots equipped with sunction cups remove the windshield from a shipping container. Subsequently, they are now going to apply a drop of urethane sealer to the edge of the glass, and then place it into the body windshield frame. Then the machines or robots pick the seats and trim panels and transport them to the vehicle. After fleeting to this section, the shell is given a water test to guarantee the accurate fit of door panels, glass and weather-stripping. After that, it is geared up to mate with the chassis. This is the stage of construction where the chassis assembly conveyor and the body shell conveyor meet. While the chassis passes the body conveyor, the case/shell is robotically lifted from its conveyor fixtures and put into the car frame. Assembly employees fasten the car body to the frame. Once the mating takes place, the car proceeds down the line to recieve the final trim components, anti-freeze, gasoline, battery and tires.
 * Final Assembly**

Now, the unit is driven to a checkpoint off the line. Here is where its lights and horn are being check, and its engine is audited. they also see to it if its tires are balanced, and they also examine its charging system. If they see any defects, the car is required to go to the central repair area. The skilled trouble-shooters analyze and repair all the problems. After the final audit, the unit is now given a price label and driven to a staging lot where it will going to wait for a shipment to its destination.
 * Testing and inspection**

E. Stage 5: Use  Cars have evolved to function in three general ways: 1) private transportation; 2) public transportation 3) race cars. Private Cars are further categorized into function-based designs. These are: [|Micro Cars] built to provide fuel efficiency because of its small size. [|BMW Mini] (2) [|Daewoo Matiz] (2) [|Daihatsu Cuore] (1) [|Daihatsu Move] (2) [|Fiat Cinquecento] (2) [|More...]

[|Mini Cars] - built for fuel efficiency because of its small size but is still big enough to function as a car for a family with 1 kid. [|Audi A2] (2) [|Citroen Saxo] (7) [|Daihatsu Charade] (1) [|Daihatsu Sirion] (1) [|Fiat Palio Weekend] (3) [|More...]

[|Compact Cars] - compact cars are designed to be flexible and function as a car that is spacious enough to use to go to the office and bring the kids in the morning and but is still stylish enough to bring to a ball come evening. [|Alfa 145] (6) [|Alfa 146] (5) [|Alfa 147] (3) [|Audi A3] (8) [|BMW 3 Series Compact] (7) [|More...]

[|Sedan]- this is basically a more luxurious compact car [|Alfa Romeo 156] (7) [|Alfa Romeo 166] (4) [|Audi A4] (18) [|Audi A6] (15) [|BMW 3 Series] (26) [|More...]

[|Luxury Cars]- are classy cars that has better engines and motor parts as well as high-class interiors [|Audi A8] (6) [|Bentley Arnage] (1) [|Bentley Continental] (5) [|BMW 7 Series] (7) [|Cadillac Seville] (2) [|More...]

[|Convertibles] - are automobiles that has a roof that can be taken off either automatically or manually. this is a good design for a user who travels cross country.[|Alfa Spyder] (3) [|Aston Martin DB7] (2) [|Audi Convertible] (4) [|Audi TT Roadster] (2) [|Bentley Continental Azure] (1) [|More...]

[|Off Roaders] - cars that are built with better suspension and can smoothly drive through off -track or off road paths.[|Audi Allroad Quattro] (2) [|BMW X5] (3) [|Chevrolet Blazer] (2) [|Chevrolet Tahoe] (1) [|Chevrolet Trail Blazer] (1) [|More...]

[|Sports Cars] - is another luxury car that features speed and style[|Alfa GTV] (3) [|Alfa Spyder] (3) [|Audi TT] (4) [|BMW 8 Series Coupé] (2) [|BMW M] (5) [|More...]

[|Family Cars/Vans] - family cars are designed to conveniently ride 5-6 passengers.[|Chevrolet Astro Van] (1) [|Chevrolet Trans Sport] (1) [|Chrysler PT Cruiser] (1) [|Chrysler Voyager] (8) [|Citroen Berlingo] (7) [|More...]

[|Estate] - these cars are designed to have a big cargo space and conveniently sit 4-5 passengers or for weekenders who go travel to small towns or provinces for a couple of days.[|Alfa Sport Wagon] (6) [|Audi A4 Avant] (9) [|Audi A6 Avant] (9) [|BMW 3 Series touring] (15) [|BMW 5 Series touring] (10) [|More...]

[|Vintage Cars] - cars that were very popular in the past and have been continually maintained and brought to car shows instead of being used for regular travel.

[|Electric Vehicles] - new generation of cars that promises to be the next step in automobile evolution since it can easily fit new types of fuels from renewable resources. [|Motor Homes]- a car designed for extended vacation of a family

Race Cars are essentially built for competetion. These cars would have one seat or two seats at most and runs in high-powered engines. These races has helped push the automobile technology and safety further and further. They are generally classified into three: Formula Cars, Sports Racer and Production Racers.

F. Stage 6: Disposal/Recycling

The reuse of parts and the reclamation of materials from motor vehicles is not a new industry. Metal parts in particular for a long time had a value, in terms of either reuse or recycling. Nowadays, there are many parts of cars, which can be recycled: from the oil and its filter to plastic bumpers.

When a car reaches the end of its useful life, it is sale to a vehicle dismantler. The dismantler will remove parts that can be sale for reuse, remove the potentially environmentally polluting materials such as operating fluids and batteries, and then sell the hulk on to a shredding operation. Shredders are high capacity hammer mills that break the hulk in to fist-sized parts. Ferrous metals removed by magnetic separation and non-ferrous metals are sorted both mechanically and by hand.


 * Recovery and disposal of individual components **

Metals
Approximately 76% by weight of the average car is metal, most of which is comprised of sheet steel. The overall metal content of cars has declined rapidly during the past 20 years accompanied by an increase in the proportion of non-ferrous metals used in their manufacture, such as aluminium and magnesium. Currently about 98% of the metals in a car are recycled. These metals are recovering by the vehicle shredding industry, subsequently utilised by the steel industry, and re-smelting plants.

Plastics
Plastics used in the car industry have risen considerably, where an average new car in 1984 contained 8.5% by weight of plastics a similar car today contains around 11%. Plastics used for their distinctive qualities, such as impact and corrosion resistance, in addition to low weight and cost. Due to its lightweight properties, the use of plastics can lead to considerable energy savings, with a car weighing 1.3 tonnes without plastics consuming approximately an extra 1000 litres of fuel during its life compared to a car weighing 1.1 tonnes with plastic.

The most common automotive plastics types are polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyurethane (PU) and polyvinylchloride (PVC). PP accounts for approximately 41% of all car plastics (common in bumpers, wheel arch liners and dashboards), and like PE and PU (most common in seat foam) it is easily recycled. Viable markets for PP, PE and PU from non-automotive sources already exist.

PVC makes up about 12% of the plastics content of an average 1990s European car. PVC, by contrast, is relatively difficult to recycle, and there are currently no large-scale recycling schemes operating for post-consumer PVC. Alternative disposal methods such as incineration have raised a number of environmental concerns including dioxin emission during incineration and the use of phthalate plasticizers, which thought to be disrupters of hormone systems. Nevertheless, this is likely to change due to proposals for a European Directive on the disposal of PVC. Car manufacturers are currently looking for alternatives to PVC.

Vehicle operating fluids
This is one of the areas of greatest concern regarding motor vehicles. The effects of inappropriate treatment of fluids removed during servicing are significant. Increasing amounts of engine oil are recovered and recycled however less than a third of waste oil produced by the DIY motorist is recycled. Lubricating oil has the greatest pollution potential.

Much of the waste oil collected for recovery in the UK is processed and used as a fuel burnt in heavy industry and power stations. However, stricter emission limits and fuel quality controls resulting from environmental legislation could mean a reduction for oil used in this way. The preferred option for lubricating oils is re-refining for reuse as a base lubricant, although this does not currently occur on a large scale.

When removed, oil filters can retain large amounts of oil and this maybe discarded with the filter leading to further pollution. Vehicle dismantlers leave oil filters on the engines and they are recycled along with them. Oil can be recovered using special oil filter presses, which squeeze out the oil and the remaining flattened metal filter can be recycled with other steel. Oil filter crushers are available for use on site at garages, although this is currently not common practice. Nevertheless, it is hope that oil filter crushers will increasingly introduced into civic amenity sites as an added service to the DIY car mechanic.

Catalytic Converters
Catalytic converters ('cats') had fitted as standard in new petrol injected-engine cars since 1992, so the business of their recovery is still developing. In the US, there is well-established network of agents who collect the cats and a similar system is developing in the UK. The steel from the exhaust and the precious metals from the cat recovered, when the cat replaces. Platinum, rhodium and palladium can be recovered for reuse, either in new auto cats or for some other purpose, and as 68% of platinum and 90% of rhodium used in Western Europe go into the production of catalysts, this business is extremely viable. The ceramic casing also recovered as a powder for refining.

Batteries
EC Directive 91/157/EEC requires the separate collection of certain batteries, including those containing more than 0.4% lead by weight, which includes vehicle lead acid batteries. There is a well-established system for the recovery of lead acid car batteries with many local authorities and garages having collection points. The recycling rate for car batteries estimated to exceed 90%. However, a significant number of batteries are still not recovered and recycled (for example, many scrap cars still contain batteries when they are shredded).

Secondary Restraint Systems
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Secondary restraint systems used in vehicles consist of airbags and seat belt pre-tensioners. Air bags became standard components in UK-produced vehicles in 1993. Some air bags only activated as result of certain types of collisions, so occasionally the bag was undetonated and in the absence of manufacturers' deployment instructions, a strict procedure should be follow in order to disarm the bag safely. Air bags do not contain high value materials, so reclamation is not a viable option. In addition, because of the high product specifications and specialist installation procedures required to fulfil their safety purpose, reuse is not currently an option either.

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Glass
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are two types of glass used in the auto industry, toughened and laminated. Toughened glass is easy to remove from vehicles after shattering. Laminated glass, however, does not shatter and will need to remove manually, which is time-consuming. In addition, as the value of glass is relatively low, it is currently not possible to recover the cost of removal glass.

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tyres
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tyres account for around 3.5% of the weight of an average ELV, and as a controlled waste under the Environmental Protection Act 1990, a Duty of Care placed upon waste producers to ensure that waste material is disposed of safely through registered carriers to licensed sites. According to the Used Tyre Working Group's 2001 survey, 22% were recycled, 8.3% went to energy recovery, 9.9% rethreaded, 16% reused and 3.3% used in landfill engineering.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tyre disposal options: **

<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Waste prevention is a primary objective when looking for future developments in scrap tyre options.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Reuse of part-worn tyres

Extracting the maximum safe life from a tyre saves valuable resources (oil, rubber, steel etc). Before the tyre resold, it must be check. Part-worn-tyres must have a minimum of 2mm tread remained and marked as part-worn on both sides at the time of sale.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Reuse through landfill engineering

Whole tyres can use in the preparation/construction of landfill sites, where they are used as leach ate draining systems. Tyres used for this purpose are exempt from the landfill tax. Between 1998 and 1999, there was a 20% growth in the use of tyres for landfill engineering.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Recycling through retreading

Retreading involves either replacing only the tread section or replacing rubber over the outer surface of the tyre. Manufacturing a retread tyre for an average car takes 4.5 gallons less oil than the equivalent new tyre and for commercial vehicle tyres, the saving estimated to be about 15 gallons per tyre. Car tyres can retread once but truck tyres can treaded up to three times.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Recycling through grinding

Grinding is the most widespread materials recovery process in the UK. In 1999, it estimated that 83,000 tonnes of tyre were granulated. This process produces a range of crumb sizes through the progressive size reduction process with the energy used to break up tyres increasing as the particle size decreases. Crumb is use in sports and play surfaces, brake linings, landscaping mulch, carpet underlay, absorbents for wastes and shoe soles. Crumb can also be recycled in road asphalt. Rubberised asphalt can increase road elasticity, temperature range and resistance to oxidation, which can result in fewer ruts, potholes and cracks in the surface.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Recycling through cryogenic fragmentation

During cryogenic fragmentation, tyres are shredded and cooled to below minus 80 degrees C. A hammer mill then pounds the chips to separate the components. The resultant rubber granules can be use for athletics tracks, carpet underlay, and playground surfaces and rubberised asphalt for road surfaces. The energy input required for such low temperatures is relatively high.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Recycling through de-vulcanisation

Treating vulcanised rubber with heat or chemicals can produce devulcanised rubber, which can be use to replace part of the virgin material in automotive and cycle tyres, conveyor belts and footwear. The variety of uses for this rubber has been limited due to its unreactive nature leading to poor bonding/strength. However, some organisations have recently developed a process that alters the molecular bonding properties of the rubber and produces a material similar to PVC with 50% recycled rubber content. Possible uses are for automotive components, building products, coatings, sealants and containers for hazardous waste. The developers believe it provides a valuable option for waste tyres.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Recycling through microwave technology

Advance Molecular Agitation Technology (AMAT) has developed a prototype using microwave technology. This breaks the tyres into their original components. The steel is of grade A quality and can therefore be sold for recovery, the carbon and oil are also reusable. The amount of emissions produce is minimal. The first commercial scale prototype has a capacity of 2,000 tonnes of tyres a year.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Energy Recovery

Tyres have a high calorific value, about 20% greater than that of coal, which on burning can be harness to produce energy.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Energy Recovery through pyrolysis

Compared to recovery of energy by direct burning, pyrolysis is a self-contained process, which avoids the release of large volumes of combustion gases. This saves on the cost of cleaning or "scrubbing" systems needed with normal incineration to remove pollutants from the gases. It also means that the process can be control to recover products for resale.

·<span style="line-height: normal; font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> Energy Recovery through incineration in cement kilns

Tyres are able to replace up to about 25% of the coal which would otherwise be used in cement kilns, and reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. Cement kilns could provide a recovery option for up to half of the UK's total waste tyre arisings. The Used Tyre Working Group (UTWG) believe this recovery route will be key to achieving 100% tyre recovery by 2006. There is however some concern regarding dioxins, particulates and other airborne pollutants that are produced by these kilns. Rugby Cement had been trialling tyre burning however; plans were halt over the health risks associated with these emissions. The risks are assessing before a site is approve to burn tyres. It can take up to 2 years for kilns to get a permit to burn tyres.

Technology is now on a fast-paced development. We are currently experiencing great advancements. One of the increasing demands of our generation is the luxury of owning cars. Cars are of big help for the people to reach their destinations fast. It’s really expensive to maintain a car. There are repairs, insurances, taxes and fuel consumption. If you’ll not be able to meet all these needs, the car wouldn’t be an effective means of transportation. Of course, cars bring convenience to the owner. It didn’t stop here. Still, car companies are improving their models and features. It is amazing to know that we can be able to upgrade this old innovation. But its negative effects had entered the scene. The consequences of abusing the use of fossil fuels started to arise. These vehicles are the major contributor of air pollution. In the Philippines, only a part of our society can afford to buy their own car though the majority uses jeeps, tricycles and buses. It has almost the same result with the use of private cars. If we will not realize how devastating it is to our planet, it’ll be too late to cover up the damage. As you see, our children will be the ones who’ll be affected the most. The next generation will inherit the consequences of abusing the nature. We must help one and another. Rules regarding this must be well-implemented. Walking would be good if you‘ll go somewhere near. Riding a bicycle will be both good to the environment and also to our health because it is a form of exercise. There are many ways on how we can help save the planet. Act now before it’s too late.
 * III. ****Conclusion**


 * IV. ****References**
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